# Fubini and Applicatives

Take an iterated integral, e.g. $\int_X \int_Y f(x, y) dy dx$. Fubini’s Theorem describes the conditions under which the order of integration can be swapped on this kind of thing while leaving its value invariant. If Fubini’s conditions are met, you can convert your integral into $\int_Y \int_X f(x, y) dx dy$ and be guaranteed to obtain the same result you would have gotten by going the other way.

What are these conditions? Just that you can glue your individual measures together as a product measure, and that $f$ is integrable with respect to it. I.e.,

Say you have a Giry monad implementation kicking around and you want to see how Fubini’s Theorem works in terms of applicative functors, monads, continuations, and all that. It’s pretty easy. You could start with my old measurable library that sits on GitHub and attracts curious stars from time to time and cook up the following example:

import Control.Applicative ((<$>), (<*>)) import Measurable dx :: Measure Int dx = bernoulli 0.5 dy :: Measure Double dy = beta 1 1 dprod :: Measure (Int, Double) dprod = (,) <$> dx <*> dy


Note that ‘dprod’ is clearly a product measure (I’ve constructed it using the Applicative instance for the Giry monad, so it must be a product measure) and take a simple, obviously integrable function:

add :: (Int, Double) -> Double
add (m, x) = fromIntegral m + x


Since ‘dprod’ is a product measure, Fubini’s Theorem guarantees that the following are equivalent:

i0 :: Double

i1 :: Double
i1 = integrate (\x -> integrate (curry add x) dy) dx

i2 :: Double
i2 = integrate (\y -> integrate (\x -> curry add x y) dx) dy


And indeed they are – you can verify them yourself if you don’t believe me (or our boy Fubini).

For an example of a where interchanging the order of integration would be impossible, we can construct some other measure:

dpair :: Measure (Int, Double)
dpair = do
x <- dx
y <- fmap (* fromIntegral x) dy
return (x, y)


It can be integrated as follows:

i3 :: Double
i3 = integrate (\x -> integrate (curry add x) (fmap (* fromIntegral x) dy)) dx


But notice how ‘dpair’ is constructed: it is strictly monadic, not applicative, so the order of the expressions matters. Since ‘dpair’ can’t be expressed as a product measure (i.e. by an applicative expression), Fubini says that swapping the order of integration is a no-no.

Note that if you were to just look at the types of ‘dprod’ and ‘dpair’ – both ‘Measure (Int, Double)’ – you wouldn’t be able to tell immediately that one represents a product measure while the other one does not. If being able to tell these things apart statically is important to you (say, you want to statically apply order-of-integration optimisations to integral expressions or what have you), you need look no further than the free applicative functor to help you out.

Fun fact: there is a well-known variant of Fubini’s Theorem, called Tonelli’s Theorem, that was developed by another Italian guy at around the same time. I’m not sure how early-20th century Italy became so strong in order-of-integration research, exactly.